XI

Decoration of Bags and Baskets. — The ornamentation of basketry depends upon the technique that is applied. The simplest form of basket- decoration is that found in open twining.¹ In all work of this kind the decoration is brought about by inserting colored warp-strands (see Figs. 228, 229, c). Various effects are produced by the different grouping of the colored strands. This type of decoration is found both on grass bags and nettle-

fibre bags. Another type of decoration that is applied in this technique is produced by the insertion of tassels made of dyed hair of young seal, or of crewel. The single bunch of hair or the single piece of crewel is caught in

the twined stitch in the manner indicated on p. 680. The designs made by these tassels are quite analogous to those applied to clothing, which were described before (see Figs. 210 and 225). The widerectangle on the bag shown in Fig. 228, a, for instance, is made of tassels of seal-hair dyed red, and of red, light blue, and dark blue crewel, which form chec- keredrectangles like those found on the em-broidered strips of the funeral coat shown in Fig. 225. The designs found on the ornament- ed rectangles on Fig. 228, b, form in the top row a zigzag band like that shown in Fig. 209; and below this, checker- work similar to the checker-work found on so many of the coats. It seems that the most

Fig. 228. Twined Baskets. Maritime Koryak, North Kamchatka. Height, 45 cm., 53 cm.

typical method of applying the tassel-ornament is in the form of a series of rectangles, decreasing in size from above downward (see Fig. 228). In a few cases the tassels are distributed at regular intervals over the face of the bag. This kind of decoration is found only on the front of the bag. In a few speci- mens the tassel decoration is also found on close-twined weaving (Fig. 229, a, b). The designs found in close-twined weaving are quite different from those found in open-twined weaving. The two bags shown in Fig. 228 and a third one in Fig. 229, c, illustrate specimens in which the body of the bag is made

in open-twined weave, while the upper border is made in close-twined weave. In the latter the color effects are brought about by using undyed and dyed woof-strands. In many cases the designs found in this kind of weave recall strongly the slit-embroidery designs which were described before. Thus the design found on the upper border in Fig. 228, a, is similar in type to part of the strip shown in Fig. 206, or to the second row in Fig. 207. The top

Fig. 229. a,b,c Twined Baskets. Maritime Koryak, North Kamchatka. Height, 27 cm., 11 cm., 47 cm.

row shown in Fig. 162, a, has the same form as the top row in Fig. 207, while the lower rows correspond to the common bar design, which is brought about either by slit-embroidery or by caught-in strips, as in Fig. 210. In Fig. 163 the analogy is even closer, in so far that the rhythmic alternation of the width of the white squares is quite similar to the rhythmic arrangement found in the slit-embroidery. Thus, in the four upper bands of square designs,

which are each seven stitches wide, we find the following arrangement. The two outer lines are throughout black; and in the three inner lines the fol- lowing arrangement of colors is repeated: I black, I white, I black, 2 white, 2 black, 2 white, 2 black, 2 white. The two lowest bands of square designs have a regular alternation of 2 white and 2 black.

Ouite a different type is represented by curiously asymmetrical zigzags, which are shown on the border of Fig. 228, b, in Figs. 229 a and 163. While the zigzags may be related to the zigzags found on clothing, the peculiar arrangement of the design seems to be typical of twined basketry.¹ It is not impossible that in its origin it is related to the triangular border designs surrounding the embroidered strips of clothing (see, for instance, Fig. 212). In Fig. 228, b, the zigzag is shown in its simplest form. In Fig. 229, a and c, and even more in Fig. 163, the same zigzag appears enlarged, and with small triangles inserted in the larger zigzag.

The border of Fig. 229, c, has above and below a series of standing and hanging triangles quite similar to those found in the embroidered strips of clothing; and the whole arrangement may perhaps be compared to the band of applique embroidery shown in Fig. 208. The standing triangles are also used independently, being arranged in single or double rows.

Another type of decoration which is used in close-twined weaving consists in the application of cross-zigzags which form rhomboidal designs (see Fig. 162 b, c, and Fig. 229 b). In the top row of Fig. 229, b, we also have a series of diamonds surrounded each by two angles the sides of which run parallel to the sides of the central rhomb.

Attention may also be called to the decoration at the lower part of the basket shown in Fig. 163, where alternating rows of varying widths of ver- tical black and white lines, and of diagonal black and white lines, occur.

The ornamental designs on coiled basketry are also similar to the designs used in slit-embroidery. Four distinct methods are employed in producing ornamental effects on coiled baskets. Narrow strips of black, occupying a small portion of a single coil, or forming vertical bands consisting of pieces of black occurring in a series of coils, are made by using material which is dyed black for whipping the coils. The black checker-work shown in Fig. 230, a, and the vertical stripes shown in Fig. 230, b, are made in this manner. A similar technique is used in the well-made basket shown in Fig. 231. Here the design is made by using dyed nettle-fibre instead of grass for whipping the coils. The method differs from the preceding in so far as in the checker-work the nettle-thread is carried on continuously, and the

1 A quite analogous design on twined baskets from Ruanda, in East Africa, shows very clearly that the
asymmetrical form of these zigzags is a result of the technique of twining. These African baskets are also very
closely woven, and exhibit almost exactly the same design as the Koryak baskets (see collections of the Berlin
Ethnographical Museum, Cat. No. III E, 6989).--- Ed.

whipping is merely arranged on the outside in such a way that two successive lines of nettle-thread are followed by two successive lines of grass whip- ping. Horizontal bands, such as are shown in Figs. 230 and 232, are made

Fig.230. Coiled Baskets. a, Maritime Koryak, Middle Kamchatka (length, 32 cm.,); b, Reindeer Koryak, North Kamchatka (diameter, 20 cm.); c, Maritime Koryak, North Kamchatka (diameter, 20 cm).

in a different manner. A grass coil is inserted, which is overlaid on the outside with one continuous strip of grass which is dyed black. This coil is not whipped by the close stitch, like the other coils of the basket, but is sewed to the preceding coil by a very loose stitch made of nettle-thread dyed

black. This stitch is identical with the stitch employed in the bottoms of baskets. A fourth method is applied in a few Kamchadal baskets; horizontal bands being made by overlaying an ordinary whipped coil with grass dyed red, or with red, blue, or black strips of cloth. This is held in place by passing every third or fourth stitch over the strip, which is thus woven on the coil (see Fig. 233). Various forms of checker-work, zigzag bands, and rectangles, are the principal figures that are found. The covers of round baskets often bear designs forming rosettes. In one basket Fig. 230, b), figures are found which evidently represent human beings.

Fig. 231. Coiled Basket with Designs made in Nettle-Fibre. Maritime Koryak, North Kamchatka. Greatest diameter, 22.5 cm

Decoration of Rugs made of Reindeer-Skins. — It is doubtful whether this art was developed among the Koryak women previous to their contact with the Russians. At present it has developed into a domestic industry. Koryak fur rugs are carried by traders far and wide. They may be seen on the walls or floors and among the furniture of Russians living at Petropavlovsk, Okhotsk, Yakutsk, and Vladivostok. In Irkutsk their price is ten times as high as at home. Among the rich Yakut, Koryak rugs of fine workmanship, made of skins of young reindeer, sometimes take the place of the crude rugs of Yakut production made of cow or horse hides.

In every village of Maritime Koryak on Penshina Bay, I found the women at work on rugs during the winter, but only once did I see a rug used by the Koryak themselves as an ornament in the house. It covered the platform which served as a sleeping-place for guests. Evidently this industry has developed as a result of Russian demand. To a great extent this is also true of embroidered coats. Every Russian or Yakut merchant, or official in the Maritime or Yakut provinces, if he has to travel on private or official business, buys an embroidered coat of reindeer-skins of Koryak manufacture. It is seldom that the Koryak themselves wear embroidered coats. They are worn only by Koryak traders. Women wear embroidered dresses more fre- quently than men. I speak here of every-day clothing, and not of festival,

dancing, or funeral garments, which are always embroidered. The making of rugs has principally developed among the Koryak of Penshina Bay. They find competitors, especially in silk embroideries, among the Russian- ized Koryak women of the Yamsk settlement. The Russianized Yukaghir and Chuvantzy women on the Anadyr River and on the lower course of the Kolyma River also enjoy quitea reputation for their art of ornamenting fur dresses and making rugs. The Russianized native women of the Kolyma, however, are less skilful than those of the Anadyr.

In decorating fur rugs, colored thread and silk or bead embroideries are not used. Small pieces of the white and of the black fur of young reindeer sewed together are the only material used for the ornamentation. The

Fig. 233 Kamchadal Coiled Basket. Diameter, 15 cm.

comparatively cheap fur of young reindeer — with its thick, soft, and glossy hair — matches in beauty the expensive furs, and is less valuable only on account of its lack of durability, since the hair usually falls out soon, as in dresses of reindeer-skin. Rugs, however, last longer. Since the entire beauty of a rug is in its ornamentation, it is almost wholly made up of the pieces of white and of black fur which form the ornamental figures. A Koryak girl will work all winter on a rug, if it is a large one, in order to exchange it with a merchant for cloth, calico, ornaments, or food-products. The rugs are either square or of elongated rectangular form. Their length varies from one metre to three metres. As in dress-decoration, the regular designs are geomet- rical forms, animals, conventionalized plants, or a mixture of all these forms.

The rugs here illustrated were made in the villages of Paren, Kuel, Mikino, and Kamenskoye.

Fig. 234 represents a large ornamented rug, the principal designs of which are familiar to us from the decoration of funeral dress. It is intended to be symmetrical around the central vertical row of squares. The upper four horizontal rows are perfectly symmetrical. Numbering the rows as indicated on the figure, it seems probable that 10 e and 9 f have been exchanged by mistake, because with this change the following lines would also be symmet-

rical. Considering all circles, and all other squares exhibiting the same type, as equivalent, the only other irregularity appears in the bottom row, where 5 m ought to have been a circle design, in order to correspond to the rest 01 the arrangement. Some of the circles have strips of dyed skin instead of dark fur. These are particularly the four corner squares (I a, m; II, a, m); I, e, i; 3, c, g; 6, b, f, j; 7 m; 9, c, g; II, e, i. Certain indications of regularity may be noticed in the use of the framed checker designs 2 k, 3 j,

9 j, 10 k, and in the tendency to alternate angular and round designs in rows 5 and 7 ; in the exclusive use of round designs in rows 4 and 8; and in the repetition of angular designs in every fourth place in rows 1, 3, 9, 11. Attention may also be called to the occurrence of the curvilinear plant-design in the two lowest rows, which do not appear in other parts of the rug. It may also be noticed that there is a tendency, which may be observed in other specimens as well, to repeat the same design in white on a black background, offsetting the same design in dark on a white background. Thus 6 d must be considered equivalent to 4 h and 8 h and to 2 j and 10 j; and the black circles 6 h and 2 d and 10 d are equivalent to the white circles on a dark background. On the whole, the impression conveyed by the rug is that of a definitely planned repetition of designs, without, however, attaining to such unity of plan as would result in a clear pattern.

In certain respects another rug is similar to the one just described. It also consists of a large checker-work, alternate squares of which consist of

small checker-work. Here we find on the dark fields a single conventionalized curved leaf; but a different design is shown in the top row and in the bot-tom row, consisting of a four-pointed star, the centre of which is a four- leaved flower from which branches extend, dividing at their ends into two leaves. The same design is re- peated on the extreme right and left field of the second row from the bottom. This similarity of corresponding fields occurs in a number of rugs.

Fig. 235 represents part of a rug, the ornamentation of which consists of crosses made up of white rhombi on black background. This cross, in
my opinion, was adopted from Russian

Fig. 235. (70/3269). Fur Rug. Length of each rhomb, 5 cm.

designs. The borders of the rug are trimmed with three strips of fur, — the innermost one covered with the checker-ornament; the second, of solid white color; and the third, black. In one part of the rug the rhombi are set into solid skin. This portion of the rug is somewhat irregular. In other parts the pattern is made up of long strips of dark skin alternating with strips of mosaic work consisting of checkered rhombi and of large rhombi of dark skin. In this part of the rug the arrangement of the rhombi in the direction parallel to the long strips is quite regular, while the arrangement in the direction of the other diagonal is not so regular.

Fig. 236 represents a small square rug, elegantly and beautifully made, with pictographic ornaments in the centre. The same group — a man sitting in a sleigh drawn by two white reindeer and a black one — is represented in the upper and the lower rows. The hind reindeer is evidently drawing the sleigh, although the sleigh and the man are too small in comparison with the reindeer. The second and third rows from the bottom represent two wolves pursuing two reindeer. In the lower row the group is made up of white silhouettes of animals, while in the upper row they are dark. The white animals are sewed to squares of dark skin, which are set into the rug. The same is done with the white sledge in the left-hand lower corner. The reindeer can be distin-

guished from the wolves by the absence of the tail and by the hoofs, which are clearly seen in spite of the smallness of the figures. The rein deer have no antlers. These are evidently ei- ther reindeer in spring, or fawns. The latter seems to be the more likely, since the reindeer are shown of the same size as the wolves. Al- though the polar wolves are very large, yet they are smaller than full- grown reindeer. The wolves are recognized by their straight, thick tails. Dogs, when pur-

Fig. 236. Fur Rug. Width, 115 cm.

suing wild animals, turn their tails upward. Owing to a lack of knowledge of perspective on the part of the women artists, all the running animals are placed in one line, which deprives the wolves in the hunting-scenes of realism and vividness. Somewhat more vivid is the scene in which two skin boats are towing a captured whale, but that is because as a matter of fact these objects usually form one line. The wound of the whale is indicated by a small tuft of red yarn, which appears in the illustration as a black speck near the tail end. The whale on the right is evidently placed there to fill up the black background, and the same may be said of the skin boat in the left-hand corner above the whale.

Another rug has a central field similar to that of the one just described. The figures on the two rugs look so much alike that they seem to be cut from the same pattern. There are in the middle the same two reindeer pursued by a single wolf, the lower row black on a white back- ground, the upper white on a dark background; but the background in this case is set off from the whole rug by a narrow white strip surrounding the rectangle in which the white animal figures are inserted. These two rows occupy the centre of the middle field. Under it there are two dark reindeer on a white background, of the same type as those in the right-hand upper corner of Fig. 236; between them, the sledge-driver shown in the left-hand upper corner of Fig. 236 in dark on a white background. The boat under his driver is repeated in white near the lower border of the central field, pursuing the whale in white, which is shown at the right-hand end of the second row in Fig. 236. This same design is repeated in dark on a white background in the top row. The second row from the top contains designs not found in Fig. 236. On the right and left there are two flowers, — the one on the left dark on white, the one on the right the reverse. Between them is a dark lion on a white rectangle. This central field is surrounded by an inner rectangle consisting of a single row of black and white squares between two white lines. To the dark border-field in Fig. 236, with its rhombi, corresponds a similar border-field in which there are a series of whitevines. In the middle on top the figure of the lion is repeated in white on a dark background. This is surrounded by a white strip of the same width as the dark stripe, in which the same designs are repeated in dark, except that the lower corners contain twice a design shown in Fig. 203, c, while the two upper corners are occupied by a conventionalized leaf like the one shown in Fig. 213, under which is repeated the same design which is found in the lower corners. This specimen is interesting in comparison with the other specimens here described, because it shows that the same stereotyped patterns are used in a variety of combinations.

An animal-ornament similar to that shown in Fig. 237 is pictured in one of the central fields of another rug. The whole rug consists of large checkers of dark and white fur. Its width equals that of forty-three of the small squares (220 cm.), and its length is the same. A border of nine rows of small squares surrounds the middle field on all sides. In this field four squares of dark skin, each equal to eleven checker units in length, are inserted, thus leaving a row of three checker units up and down and from right to left, separating the four squares. On the upper left-hand square a tent is represented, and on each side four sledges, one of which is held by one man, while another man sits on it. The lower left-hand square is decorated with repetitions of two stars, three seals, and four birds. The right-hand lower square has a plant-design similar to those on the outer border of

Figs. 239 and 240. On the upper right-hand square (Fig. 237) are a number of animal designs. The animals and the man represent a reindeer-herd followed by their herdsman; but, in the absence of perspective, this impres- sion is not produced, the animals being represented one above another in a vertical plane. An interesting feature in this design is the smallness of the figure of the herdsman, who is more distant than the reindeer, which suggests some conception of perspective; and also the tracks of the reindeer-hoof, which are represented by white pieces of fur sewed in.

Fig. 238 represents an entire fur rug with a mixed ornament. Besides men, the animals represented here are dogs, seals, flying geese, some flying

bird in the form of a cross (in the corners of the middle square), and a lobster-like animal in the inner square. On the white back of the latter is shown a conventionalized figure, in black fur, of what may be an animal or a plant, the same that I have seen on Russian printed cal- ico. The figure is also found sepa- rately, of white fur on a black back- ground, in the space between the two inner squares. None of the figures of the rug have any relation to one another, and even the same order in their arrangement is not always observed. Deserving special attention among the figures are two white ice-floes in the form of rhombi, on which black seals are

Fig. 237. Part of Fur Rug.

resting. Near the lower right-hand corner is a man in a skin boat, with small oars tied to the sides, such as are used in Penshina Bay.¹

The checkered border setting off the middle square is made of alternate diagonal rows of dark fur, white fur, and reindeer-skin dyed reddish brown. On the right-hand side these diagonals run regularly in the order brown skin, white, dark, white fur, from the right-hand side below to the left-hand side above. On the left-hand border they also run quite regularly, so that the dyed skin runs diagonally from the left side below to the right side above. On the left-hand border the diagonals of dyed skin run zigzag, but so that every third diagonal is interrupted by a square of dark fur. In this waya pattern results which consists of half-diagonal squares alternately turning to

the left and to the right. On the upper and lower border the arrangement of diagonals and these half-diagonal squares are irregularly arranged. Most of the circles and rhombi are made of white and dark fur. The four groups of corner circles have, in place of the dark fur, dyed skin. The outer dark rings of the eight circles in the upper row are made of the same material. In the border containing the plant-ornament, the second circle from below, right and left, is' made in the same way, as are also the four circles in the innermost square.

Of a similar mixed character is the ornament of the rug shown in Fig. 239. Especially interesting in this ornament are the conventionalized plants, which are not represented as silhouettes, but have their interior parts also worked out.

The bulk of this rug is made of white and dark reindeer-skin; but the insets of fine checker-work on the right and left are made of dark and light fur, and also of stripes of brown skin, which give the patterns that appear

distinctly in the illustration. The arrangement is such that in every case the bare skin takes the place of white pieces, excepting in a few spots along the upper and lower borders of the designs. In the second strip from the top on the right-hand side of the rug, about halfway between the three dark strips on the right side and the inner square, there are two vertical lines of brown rhombi inserted in place of the dark fur patches. These do not appear in the illustration, because the difference between the dark fur and the brownish skin is too slight. Stripes of light reddish-brown skin are also used

in the four patches on the lateral borders surrounding the animal figures. These appear in the cut of somewhat lighter color than the adjoining stripes of dark fur.

Still better, and indicative of greater skill, is the work represented by the plant-ornament on the rug shown in Fig. 240, especially the wreath in

the centre. Looking at this delicate and elaborate design, one would hardly imagine that it was made of a fur mosaic sewed together with sinew-thread: it looks more like a drawing sketched with a flexible brush. Inside of the wreath we find the figure of a Tungus astride a reindeer. The execution of the figures of the animal and the rider is wonderfully true to life. I suppose that the human figure does not represent an adult Tungus, or it would be considerably larger. It should be noted that the ornamentation of his cap and of his cut-away coat, as well as that on his apron, boots, and trousers, and also the tongue of the reindeer, are done in colored yarn. It is the

only rug that 1 have ever seen embroidered with yarn. A few leaves of the flowers which appear in outline in the illustration are set in, being made of pieces of skin of the same color as the background of the rug.

Almost all the rugs have their patterns arranged in such a way that one definite side must be considered as the lower side, around which the arrangement of patterns is fairly symmetrical. This feature may be observed in the arrangement of the patterns in Fig. 234, 236-238, 240. It may also be noticed in specimen. Here the middle is occupied by a double circle, somewhat irregular in form, the centre of which is occupied by a cross of leaves similar to design 1 in Fig. 212, and surrounded by a ring of eight leaf-designs similar to the design in Fig. 213. The border of this rug is formed above and below of four rectangular patches with diamond designs (Fig. 241) alternating with five patches of dark skin of the same form and

size. On the sides the same designs occur as the top and bottom design, repeating in this way the feature which is of common occurrence, that in checker designs in which the rectangular or square patterns run on a smooth background in diagonal rows, the same patterns occur at the extreme fields of the horizontal and vertical rows. The vertical rows of this rug contain five rectangles with patterns alternating with six smooth dark rectangles. Ac- cording to what was said before, the uppermost and lowest of these rectangles are the same as those of the horizontal rows. The two following patterns contain the same rhombi, somewhat coarser, and instead of the edge consisting of triangles and rhombi, an upper edge consisting of alternate dark and white squares, and a lower edge consisting of the same design over a straight white

line. The central pattern on each side is asymmetrical, and consists of the pattern just described, over which the upper half of the same pattern is placed, containing the upper half of the coarse central rhombi and the upper line of squares. Thus it will be seen that the whole design is symmetrically arranged right and left, with the exception of some irregularities in the central circle. The symmetry of the border is broken, on the one hand by the asymmetry of the central design, on the other hand by the fact that all the patterns have clearly a heavier lower side and a lighter upper side, all the patterns in the upper and lower half being placed in the same direction.

Fig. 241. Design from a Border of a Fug Rug.

A square rug — consisting of a central field with a star-like flower design made up of four trees with roots occupying the diagonals, the roots towards the centre, and four spiral branches (two white on black, one black on white, and one leaf design similar to the one shown in Fig. 213, occupying the middle of the sides of the square — has three borders con- sisting of alternate dark squares and design squares. In the innermost row the pattern consists of squares containing a checker of nine smaller squares. Each side is divided into thirteen fields. The middle row consists of a similar alternation of squares, each pattern square consisting of a checker-work of twenty-five small squares. The interesting feature in this row is that the sequence of these fields is not quite regular. There are sixteen or seventeen fields to each side. The sixth field from the left on the upper side, which normally should contain checker-work, has the figure of a long-tailed quad- ruped sewed in. The following square to the right is the regular checker square, which is followed by one of the regular dark squares with a white mammal sewed in. The third square from the right in the upper row is made up of rhombi instead of squares. The second square from the right in the lower row contains figures of two swimming cormorants, resembling

very much, in shape, Fig. 177, a. The outer row contains again the coarser checker-work of the same size as the inner row. Here a number of animal figures are inserted on dark fields. On the left-hand side on the lower border of the rug we find one man holding a drum, and another man apparently- holding a club. On the left-hand side on the upper border we find a large and a small mountain-sheep on one field; while on the right-hand side there are a number of small figures set into one field, apparently representing a flying bird, a man, and two bears. It is worth remarking that these latter have their feet towards the left, the only case in which figures of animals inserted into rugs in this way do not stand upright. It should be mentioned, however, that the man in this figure does stand upright.

Another rug which illustrates the character of the symmetry which under- lies the rug designs is illustrated in Fig. 242. Attention may be called to the occurrence of the triangular design in the upper border as compared with the square design in the lower border; to the continuation of the lateral strips downward; and to the finish on both sides by a series of broad rectangles having one additional row of small squares on each side. It will be seen from this that clearly the underlying thought is not that of a series of white crossing diagonals, but the maker had rather in mind the alternation of the larger rectangles, — one consisting of dark skin; the next, of a checker of nine dark and white squares. In this way the rug was made. The corner

Fig. 242. (70/3869). Fur Rug.

pieces are all made of a single piece, and some of the dark rectangles along the right and left border are also made of single pieces of skin.

Drawings. — The Koryak use colors more often in decorative art than in articles of sculpture. Wood-carvings are frequently colored black, more seldom red or brown. Engravings on bone carvings are also filled with black paint, and on wooden masks¹ the beard is also indicated by means of black paint, while red ochre or blood is used to redden the cheeks of masks. I have spoken above² of the use of dyes in manufactured articles and in technical work; the decoration of skin dress by means of stamps has also been mentioned

in this chapter. The art of drawing in colors realistic or conventionalized objects on leather or some other smooth surface, is unknown to the Koryak; but I have numerous collections of Koryak pencil drawings representing household or hunting scenes, and revealing the same power of observation, and ability to represent what they have seen, both on plain and round surfaces, but with the same faults of composition and the same lack of perspective as occur in engravings of men and in the decorative work of the women. The collections of drawings were made on paper with pencil by different Maritime Koryak of Penshina Bay, who drew at my request, and without any instruction or explanation on my part. The rapidity with which the Koryak, including the children, executed the drawings, showed that this was an art to which they were accustomed. In the method of reproduction of men and animals, they closely resemble the Indian pictographs and the engravings on bone of the Alaskan Eskimo. Some of these drawings, of a religious or mythical nature, have been reproduced in the first part of this volume.¹

Fig. 243 represents a reindeer-race. Each of the sledges is drawn by a pair of reindeer, and the participants in the race sit astride the race-sledges. The

reindeer are represented from one point of view. Of course, there is neither linear nor space perspective: however, in order to overcome this fault, the left-hand reindeer is represented, not behind (i. e., covered by) the right one, but above it, — a device known not only to the Indians and Australians, but also to the ancient Egyptians. None of the artists drew the reindeer from two points of view, as they did the dogs.

Fig. 244 represents dog-driving. The interesting point about this drawing is the lack of regularity in composition. The dogs are drawn not only without reference to perspective, but from two points of view. The driver

1 See Part I, Fig. 1, p. 28; Fig. 28, p. 69; Figs. 40, 41, p. 93; Fig. 57, p. 116; Fig. 58, p. 123.

and his sledge (which, by the way, are too small in proportion to the dogs) and three dogs are represented from one point of view; and the other row of dogs, from another. It is interesting to note that this manner of drawing is not an individual characteristic, as I have similar drawings of dog-sleighs made by different artists. It is singular that one boy in Kamenskoye, seven- teen years old, — the author of the map Fig. 251, — made a few drawings in which the dogs and reindeer, hitched to teams, are represented one behind the other, as they appear to the observer who stands on the side. In a few cases the fault of primitive drawings of representing solid objects as transparent is also avoided; and the right-hand animal covers the greater part of the left- hand one. In these cases I suspect that the boy was imitating a printed illustration which he had seen.

Fig. 245 represents a sheet on which the artist has drawn five separate subjects. That in a represents a hunter in a kayak stealing up to an ice-floe

Fig. 245. Koryak Drawings. a, Seal-Hunter; b, Hunters in a Skin Boat; c, Bear-Hunter; d, Foot-Race; e, Sealers.

on which there is a seal; b represents hunters in a large skin boat, who ar pulling themselves up to an ice-floe by means of a hook; while engaged in this, the hunters have ceased to row. c represents a hunter about to attack a bear with a spear, d represents a foot-race, and here there seems to be a suggestion of linear perspective, since the figures of the runners become larger from right to left, e represents a group of hunters who are thrusting their harpoons at seals which they have come across on the beach at low tide; the seals are hastening to get back into the water. The line represents the edge of the water, and the zigzags indicate the waves on the beach. Here, as in the other drawings, we have, in the absence of perspective, thearrangement of one object above the other. One of the hunters is represented falling to the ground during the quick run.

Fig. 246 represents two subjects. In a, several hunters in kayaks are pursuing a seal on a shallow beach; the seal cannot dive, but glides along

on the water, disturbing its surface. In b we have a fisherman with a hand-net, standing in the water.¹

Fig. 247 represents three phases of the whale-hunt. In the first attack (a) the oarsmen are rowing with all their might to get near the spouting whale; the harpooneer, in the bow of the skin boat, being shown in the act of thrusting his harpoon. The second drawing (6) shows the whale struck by a

harpoon and by a spear; but it is still dragging the boat and the hunters with great force, creating a current in the water. In the final situation (c) three skin boats, tied to one another by thong lines, are towing the captured whale.

It is interesting to note that the last boat is going stern forward, evidently in order to give the bow, by which the whale is towed, the proper direction.

I gave to an artist in Kamenskoye three pencils — black, red, and blue — to see how he would use the colors in his drawings. In most cases he used the colors correctly, following the colors of the objects which he represented. In illustrating the interior of the house, for instance, he drew the enamelled teakettle on the fire with the blue pencil, the flame with the red, and the smoke rising from the fire with the black pencil. Another of his drawings represented the carcass of a skinned sacrificial dog that had been left in the tundra, being torn by crows. The carcass was colored red, and with such fine shadings that the rounded muscles of the skinned animal could be seen. The crows were entirely black. In the figures of dogs he made their protruding tongues red, and in those of seals he made the eyes red. However, in some drawings he used the colors in a most fanciful manner.

subjects. They do not in any way differ from ordinary drawings, specimens of which are reproduced here. They have the same defects, and are also realistic. Somewhat fanciful is a drawing of the spider-crab, representing the marine deity.¹ The drawings of circles around the heads of the Supreme eity, his wife and son,² and the beams radiating from the heads of the first two, seem to be an imitation of the circles and rays representing the halos around the heads in orthodox icons, which the artist had no doubt seen in Russian houses on more than one occasion on his trips to Gishiginsk.

Writing. — Although I found no pictographic letters on bark among the Koryak, — such as are found among the Yukaghir, and which serve with them as a means of communication between people at a distance, — yet the memoranda and commercial notes used by the Koryak traders are curious specimens of a primitive writing of a somewhat pictographic nature. The Koryak traders in Kamenskoye and in northern Kamchatka purchase from Russian merchants pencils and paper or memorandum-books, in which they score their purchases and sales, denoting the articles by means of real- istic or conventionalized reproductions.

Figs. 248-250 represent three specimens of such records of Qaci'lqut, a Koryak trader of Kamenskoye. Fig. 248 represents a record in his memo- randum-book of goods received at a fair from the clerk of a Gishiginsk merchant with whom he keeps an open account. Fig. 249 is a copy of a letter con- taining a list of furs forwarded by Oaci'lqut to the merchant. Fig. 250 rep- resents a list of goods which he furnished me for our ethnographical collection. The system of records used by Oaci'lqut consists of a representation of the articles, in real or conventionalized form, on one side of a long line, and of special numeral signs on the other. Oaci'lqut, however, does not adhere to one particular side in representing the articles or their number. The bill which he presented to me (Fig. 250) differs somewhat from his ordinary notes. His system of sign-figures puzzled me somewhat at first. To my question as to who invented them, Qaci'lqut replied, "I know myself." Later on I found in the archives of the natives on the Kolyma River receipts of Russian officials of the eighteenth and the beginning of the nineteenth centuries. The receipts testified as to the payment of tribute in furs by the native chiefs, and the number of fur skins or rubles received as tax was indicated by Russian letters and also by means of the system used by Oaci'lqut, evidently for the benefit of the illiterate natives. It consisted of a simplification of the Roman system of numeration, being reduced to three signs only,³ — I (one), X (ten), and X enclosed in a circle (one hundred), as in Fig. 249, 4. Such receipts were found also in the archives by Mr. Bogoras. In one, dated 1823, given

3 It is of interest to remember that the ancient Egyptian numeration consisted of only four signs; namely,
for 1, 10, 100, and 1000. In composing large numbers, they were used in the same manner as Qaci'lqut uses his
three signs, — by means of repetition (see Tylor, Anthropology, London, 1904, p. 313).

to the elder of the Omotski Yukaghir Clan by the chief of the Kolyma district, the following signs were used: X (one ruble), [] (ten rubles), ® (a hundred rubles), and I (kopeks). The use of the three signs by Qaèi'lqut can be ex- plained as an imitation of the old Russian signs by Oaci'lqut's ancestors. At present Russian officials do not use these signs in their receipts. Following is a more detailed explanation of the use of the three signs, based on the statements of Oaci'lqut himself.

Record from Memorandum-Book (Fig. 248).

1. One iron pot. The pot is represented by a circle.

2. Two tea-kettles. The tea-kettle is represented by a circle with a beak, the latter representing the spout. A little arc on the top stands for the handle.

3. Twenty-five pounds and a half of leaf-tobacco. The tobacco is represented by a bunch of leaves, and the fraction one-half is indicated by a dot. This arithmetical sign I have not found in the receipts of the tax-gatherers of the eighteenth century. It is Qaói'lqut's own invention.

4. One large knife. The knife is represented by a long vertical line.

5. Two small belt-knives. The knife is represented by a vertical line smaller than the preceding one. In this memorandum, Qaci'lqut has departed somewhat from his system by denoting the number 2 twice, — once graphically, and again by numerical signs.

6. Twenty pounds of wheat-flour. The flour is indicated by a black ring, which stands for a full bag of flour.

7. Six papers of needles. The paper is indicated by a rectangle, which stands for a paper filled with needles.

8. Fifty large needles. The place for indicating the object is left blank, which is equivalent to "ditto;" but under the numeral signs there is a long horizontal line, which signifies that the needles are of a larger size.

9. Calico prints for one shirt. The calico is represented by a horizontal line, which stands for a strip of cloth cut off from a bolt of goods.

10. One woollen shawl. The shawl is represented by a rectangle with fringe on the sides.

11. One tablecloth. The tablecloth is indicated in the same way as the shawl.

12. One scarf. The scarf is represented by a horizontal line with a fringe at the end.

13. Three arshins' of red cloth for a shirt.² The cloth, like the calico (No. 9), is represented by a horizontal but longer line. The color of the cloth is left to be implied, since the outside shirt is made by rich Koryak only of red cloth

14. Two plates. The plate is indicated by a ring, but of a smaller size than that for the pot (see No 1).

Fig. 248. Koryak Account.

16. Four strings of beads. The string of beads is represented by a thread strung with beads, with the ends tied together; but the beads in the drawing have a rather strange form.

17. Two brass chains for women's hair-dressing. It is interesting that the links are represented by rings which do not pass through one another, but are joined by a line.

18. Nine little bells. The bell is represented by a ring with a little tag above, which stands for the handle of the bell.

19. Three iron dog-chains. The chain is represented as in No. 17, only of a larger size.

21. Three large belts. The belt is represented by a horizontal line like the piece of calico (No. 9) or of cloth (No. 13).

22. Twenty bricks of tea. The brick of tea is indicated by a black rectangle.

23. Six cups and saucers. Of two concentric circles, the one inside represents the cup, and the outside the saucer.

24. Sixteen buttons. Strangely, the buttons are represented, not by round dots, but by dashes. I suppose that the eye of the writer of the bill did not distinguish clearly their difference.

25. One axe. The axe is represented rather conventionally by a sign resembling the letter P.

26. Three combs. The comb is indicated by a rhomboidal figure, with dashes under the base representing the teeth.

27. Eleven pounds of sugar. A little figure, which is neither a square nor a ring, represents a sawed piece of sugar.

28. One frying-pan. The frying-pan is indicated by a ring and a dash, the latter representing the handle.

Copy of a Letter (Fig. 249).

1. Five sables. Why a sable is represented only by its hind-legs is not clear.

2. Twenty spring fawn-skins. The drawing represents a skin taken from a new-born fawn. The side-lines represent the head and the feet.

3. Five fox-skins. The middle line represents the skin, and the side-lines the four legs.

4. A hundred and fifty reindeer-fawn skins. The whole rein-deer-skin is represented by a rectangular figure, and the skin from the legs by four dashes. The difference in the representation of the reindeer-skin and the fox-skin is due to the fact that the fox-skin is taken off entire, and is round; while the skin of the reindeer, before being taken off, is first cut, beginning at the lower lip, the entire length of the animal. The reindeer- skin is therefore shown opened.

5. Five bear-skins. The bear-skin is taken off in the same manner as the skin of a rein-deer, and it is therefore shown opened out. The paws are not indicated, being imma-

terial; but a more characteristic feature of that animal is indicated on the skin, namely, thick black hair.

6. Ten wolf-skins. The wolf-skin is taken off in the same manner as the reindeer-skin, and its representation differs from that of the reindeer only by the addition of a long tail.

7. Two wolverene-skins. The skin of the wolverene is taken off like that of the fox. Accidentally it is represented as smaller in size than the fox. Wolverenes in general are larger than foxes; but the characteristic feature of that animal — a large body and short legs — is brought out.

8. Three skins of polar foxes. The skin of the polar fox is represented in the same way as that of the other fox (No. 3).

9. Ten skins of polar foxes for thirty rubles. This memorandum, with a double meaning, — since it indicates both the number of skins and their cost, — is put by Qaci'lqut in parentheses (two lines). Of the number-signs, the former (ten) indicates the number of skins, and the latter (thirty) their value. The repetition of the fox-skin signifies that both numbers relate to the same article.

10. Three coats of reindeer-skin. The illustration of the coat differs from that of the reindeer-skin (No, 4) by having only two side-lines for sleeves, and also by indicating the hood of the coat in the upper part.

List of Goods (Fig. 250).

1. A boy's summer and winter suit and travelling-overcoat (separately).

The suits are drawn, like the coats, with the addition of boots (under the line). In Fig. 250 Qaci'lqut did not use the numeral sign in cases of single articles.

2. A man's winter and summer suit and overcoat. Drawn as in No. 1.

3. A girl's summer and winter combination-garment and two overcoats. In the drawing of the suit, the woman's wide trousers are indicated.

4. A woman's summer and winter suit and two overcoats. Made as in No. 3, only of a larger size. The lines between the first four num- bers have no significance, and merely serve to separate one from the other.

5. One combination-dress of a child. The peculiarity about this dress is that it has a flap sewed on behind in the shape of a tail, which is placed between the legs.

6. Two collars for reindeer-harness.

7. Two reindeer bridles and reins. The drawing of the bridle differs from that of the collar in having inside the ring an indication of the hitching-strap; and on the side, of the bone piece.

8, 9. One reindeer-lasso, and a coil of seal-skin thong.
10-12. A pair of boots, two reindeer-skins, one whip.

Fig. 250. Koryak Account

After an examination of Qaci'lqut's writing, the interesting conclusion may be drawn that the conventional representation of animals and other objects of nature is not always a perversion of the original realistic represen- tation. Conventionalism in this case constitutes the primary phase. The primary conventionalization of natural objects may be the result of inability

to give a realistic representation of objects, or, when the presentation is for practical ends only, a lack of care in execution. In the present case, for instance, it was important only that the illustration should serve to recall the objects. With the exception of the illustrations of dress (Fig. 250), in which any one would recognize human figures, we could not tell the meaning of the other primitive illustrations in these writings without explanation. Even other Koryak to whom I showed the letter seldom recognized all of them. Not all Koryak traders who keep written memoranda are familiar with the number-signs used by Oaci'lqut. One of them, for instance, used only one sign, the line. He used only units, in the same manner as the Koryak and Chukchee make use of counters in verifying accounts.¹

I did not see among the Koryak notched sticks like those used by the Yakut, the Tungus, and the Yukaghir, in recording accounts. However, the trader mentioned employed some devices to avoid the necessity of writing an interminable row of lines in enumerating large numbers; for instance, to indicate a pud (40 Russian pounds, or 36 pounds Avoirdupois), he drew a balance with loaded scale in equilibrium. This signified full weight.

Nelson² speaks of the trading-records of the Alaskan Eskimo, which, judging by his account, are quite similar to those of the Koryak. Unfortu- nately he does not give any illustrations which would make it possible to compare the records of the Eskimo and the Koryak.

Geographical Maps. — Among the Koryak pencil-drawings, there are also geographical maps of the sea and the coast of Penshina Bay. The Koryak display in their charts quite a true perception of the relative disposi- tion of the seacoast, rivers, mountains, and settlements. On the whole, their charts resemble very much the illustrations of Eskimo charts published by other travellers. The settlements are indicated on Koryak charts by rings, dots, or small dashes, which represent houses; small rivers are represented by one line, large ones by two parallel lines; mountains are represented by parallel shadings of different degrees. One chart made by a lad of seventeen in Kamenskoye, and representing the northern part of Penshina Bay, is especially well made (see Fig. 251). Itkana and Ma'mec Capes protrude into the bay, making it appear very narrow. As a matter of fact, this part of the bay is very narrow (see Part I, map). In calm weather the passage from the Itkana settlements to the Ma'mec can be made in a skin boat in from eight to ten hours. The mouth of the Penshina and Talovka Rivers, which empty into one inlet, the Kamenskoye and the Talovka settlements, the mountain-ridge between Talovka and Penshina, and a few other features, are also well drawn. The three Itkana villages are not indicated. In the bay are shown some hunting-scenes of floating ice-fields with seals on them, of spouting whales in pursuit of sea-mammals, and hunters in kayaks and skin boats.

1. Itkana Cape.	8. Mikino River.	I5. Kamenskoye Village.
2. Paren River.	9. Mikino Village.	16. Penshina River.
3. Paren (Poitin) Village.	10. Shestokova Village.	17. Oklan River.
4. Kuel Village.	11. Shestokova or Ega'c River.	18. Talovka River.
5. Kuel River.	12. Yagach Village.	19. Talovka Village.
6. Tilqai River.	13. Yarnochek Village.	20. Ma'mec Village.
7. Tilqai winter settlement.	14. Levati Village.	21. Ma'mec Cape.

		Decoration of Bags and Baskets	707
		Decoration of Rugs made of Reindeer-Skins.	_7I2
		Drawings	723
		Writing	727
		Geographical Maps	732